In the 25% treatment in the State Risk Comparison Study and the RR-SKM treatment in the SKM Reduced Risk study, the fungicides in the program are primarily lower risk pesticides such as boscalid, fluxapyroxad, and penthiopyrad from the SDHI fungicide class. (1992). Even voluntary sustainability certification programs for golf courses, such as Audubon International and GEO-Certified, do not require golf courses to track pesticide risk. Chlorothalonil is often repeatedly applied during the summer months in Midwestern climates to manage a broad range of fungal diseases and to suppress fungicide-resistant dollar spot populations. The study included a control and four programs that were 100%, 75%, 50%, and 25% the pesticide risk of the statewide average (SA) as quantified by hazard quotient (HQ). doi: 10.1126/science.abe1148, Smiley, R. W., Dernoeden, P. H., and Clarke, B. The second study established an average pesticide risk using HQ based on the pesticide records of 23 randomly selected Wisconsin golf courses. Two consecutive field experiments were conducted to determine the efficacy of lower risk fungicide programs to suppress dollar spot development. Total Environ. Hs
`UWSe8 Zi4IPSc],drMD)4J. Controlling dollar spot on golf course greens and fairways is generally in the best economic interest of those in the golf business to retain clientele. Med. The CP-SKM treatment had the same or lower disease compared to the CP in all site-years except for University Ridge Hole #18 in 2015 and the OJ Noer in 2014. Available online at: https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/conventional-reduced-risk-pesticide-program (accessed April 6, 2022). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. References. PLoSONE 13, e0194216. The PRT estimates pesticide risk across 13 different categories: Avian Acute, Avian Reproductive, Small Mammal Acute, Earthworm, Fish Chronic, Aquatic Algae, Aquatic Invertebrate, Inhalation, Worker Dermal, Dermal Cancer, Pollinator in Bloom, Pollinator No Bloom, and Pollinator off Crop.
Compendium of Turfgrass Diseases - 3rd Ed. While the RR-SKM program had significantly lower pesticide risk than the other two pesticide application programs in the study, the estimated cost of the program was $5,049 USD per hectare. (2021) found that despite large reductions in pesticide risk to fish, mammals, and birds, pesticide risk to aquatic invertebrates and pollinators has increased significantly over the past 25 years in US agriculture. Mole. The third fungicide program, titled Reduced Risk Smith-Kerns Model (RR-SKM), also based application timing on the SKM but only used fungicides labeled as reduced risk by the Reduced Risk Program (EPA Reduced Risk Program, 2021) or products with similar chemistries and toxicity profiles as fungicides included in the Reduced Risk Program. However, the four treatment programs were statistically indistinguishable in color across all 4 years of the study (Table 5). The second experiment ran for four growing seasons (2017 through 2020) and is referred to as the State Risk Comparison Study.. Received: 22 February 2022; Accepted: 20 April 2022; Published: 13 May 2022. Murphy, R. R., and Haith, D. A. In Denmark, all golf courses are required to use an online pesticide application software [Scandinavian Turfgrass Environmental Research Foundation (STERF), 2019]. Superintendents in the US often feel pressure from golfers to maintain high quality pest-free playing surfaces, and therefore are incentivized to use more pesticide rather than less. Turfgrass quality ratings included combinations of disease, color, density, and uniformity and were always conducted by the same person to avoid interpersonal variation. J. Indust. These results highlight the importance both of calculating pesticide risk instead of weight of pesticide applied as a measure of ecological impact and estimating pesticide risk to a wide variety of non-target organisms. The first study found that using the Smith-Kerns Dollar Spot Prediction Model to schedule fungicide applications did not reduce pesticide risk on its own, but that a pesticide program utilizing reduced risk products was just as effective in controlling dollar spot as a conventional program while reducing pesticide risk by ~5080% depending on the pesticide risk indicator used.
Turfgrass quality was also rated visually every 14 days using the National Turfgrass Evaluation Program (NTEP) 1 to 9 rating scale, where 1 is dead/necrotic, 6 is minimally acceptable, and 9 is excellent (Lee et al., 2011). However, EPA risk assessments only consider individual pesticide products and therefore do not quantify the risk of pest management programs that commonly contain many different pesticides. (2021) Wallis test via the kruskal function of the agricolae package in R (v.3.6.2), and the kruskal function also separated out treatment differences in turfgrass quality using a Fishers least significant difference test (P 0.05).
J. Environ. doi: 10.1021/es060964b. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. J. Copyright 2022 Apple Inc. All rights reserved. Carcinogenic and genotoxic potential of turf pesticides commonly used on golf courses. Experience With an Upper Limit for Total Pesticide Use on Danish Golf Courses. Base EIQ values were obtained from the EIQ Calculator website (https://nysipm.cornell.edu/eiq/calculator-field-use-eiq/). doi: 10.1897/07-216.1. AUDPC data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and means separated using Fishers least significant difference (P 0.05) using the MIXED procedure in SAS (Version 9.4, Cary, North Carolina). The high risks per application indicator is a summation of the number of high risks across the 13 categories included in the PRT for each application made. 9, 643847. doi: 10.3389/fenvs.2021.643847, Haith, D. A., and Rossi, F. S. (2003). doi: 10.1094/PDIS.1997.81.11.1259, Cai, Y., Cabrera, J. C., Georgiadis, M., and Jayachandran, K. (2002). doi: 10.1021/jf047908j, Golembiewski, R., Vargas, J., Jones, A. L., and Detweiler, A. R. (1995). Prices & shipping based on shipping country.
(2021) reviewed 400 studies of soil invertebrates and 2,800 tested parameters (the effect of a specific pesticide on a specific soil invertebrate) and found that 70.5% of tested parameters showed negative effects, 1.4% showed positive effects, and 28.1% showed no effect. N. Y. (2011). Plant Dis. For the average US golf course with 11.4 ha of fairways, the annual cost of the RR-SKM program would be ~$58,000 USD, compared to $36,200 for the CP. 139, 18. Hortscience 47, 422426. Bennett). Table 4. 134, 173182. Toxicol. (2021). Scandinavian Turfgrass Environmental Research Foundation (STERF) (2019). This was more than two times greater than the cost of the CP-SKM program ($2,446 USD per hectare) and 1.6 times the cost of CP program ($3,172 USD per hectare). doi: 10.2135/cropsci2010.05.0296, Metcalfe, T. L., Dillion, P. J., and Metcalfe, C. D. (2008). J. Indus. Chem. The study was conducted in 2017, 2018, 2019, and 2020 on approximately the same location each year. (2022). The editor and reviewer's affiliations are the latest provided on their Loop research profiles and may not reflect their situation at the time of review. Supplementary Table S7 indicates dollar spot severity at each rating date across the 4 years of the study. (2021) 10 scale. Bull.
doi: 10.1016/j.funbio.2018.04.004, Sang, H., Hulvey, J., Popko, J. T., Lopes, J., Swaminathan, A., Chang, T., et al. IPM Institute of North America (2021). In 2014 and 2015, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) measurements were collected on a 14-day interval to estimate turfgrass color and was measured using a FieldScout TCM 500 NDVI Turf Color Meter (Spectrum Technologies Inc., Plainfield, Illinois). Future advancements in disease resistant grasses, precision application technology, and plant-based fungicides may bring further reductions in pesticide risk and increase the sustainability of US golf courses. Cultural Aspects of Turfgrass Disease Management. Next, the Field Use Environmental Impact Quotient (FUEIQ) was calculated consistent with the methods of Kovach et al.
Qual. (2018). Fungus Diseases of Turfgrass, II: Diseases Primarily of Home Lawn and General Turfs. Using Disease Resistance in Turfgrass Management. In the remaining 3 years of the study, however, the four treatment groups were statistically distinguishable. Indeed, more money is spent on fungicides to suppress dollar spot than any other turfgrass pest, and a single golf course can easily exceed $10,000 USD annually targeting dollar spot (Vargas, 2005; Golf Course Industry, 2015). Informa UK Limited, an Informa Plc company. The repeated use of fungicides to control dollar spot has led to widespread documentation of C. jacksonii populations that are resistant to a variety of fungicide classes including the demethylation inhibitor (DMI), dicarboximide, succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor (SDHI), and benzimidazole fungicide classes (Detweiler et al., 1983; Golembiewski et al., 1995; Burpee, 1997; Sang et al., 2015; Sapkota et al., 2022). Thus, a reduced risk program was just as effective or more effective in controlling dollar spot and yielding a high-quality turf surface than conventional programs. Turfgrass quality results were analyzed using the Kruskal Bekken et al. System requirements for Bookshelf for PC, Mac, IOS and Android etc. Available online at: http://www.golfcourseindustry.com/article/gci0115-golf-state-industry-report-2015/ (accessed April 6, 2022). Golf Course Industry (2015). Schulz, R., Bub, S., Petschick, L. L., Stehle, S., and Wolfram, J. Without pesticide applications, golf course greens are often not able to survive in US climates (Rossi and Grant, 2009). Lett. Food Life Sci. To calculate the statewide average, 50 golf courses in Wisconsin, USA were selected at random out of the nearly 500 golf courses in the state. Pesticide applications were made using the same method as described for the SKM Reduced Risk study. According to all five pesticide risk indicators utilized in this study, the CP-SKM had the highest pesticide risk, the CP had similar but slightly lower risk, and the RR-SKM had far lower risk than the other two programs (Figure 1). KH and PK contributed to conceptualization, design of the study, field work, and editing paper drafts. Plant Sci. One method to estimate pesticide risk of pesticide application programs is to sum the annual weight of pesticide active ingredient applied (Kerns and Tredway, 2013). Volatilization of pesticides from golf courses in the United States: mass fluxes and inhalation health risks. Long-term trends in the intensity and relative toxicity of herbicide use. Wong, H., and Haith, D. A. The Warm-Season Grasses: A Plant Pathologist's Point of View. (2014). The State Risk Comparison field experiment was conducted at the O. J. Noer Turfgrass Research Facility on Focus' creeping bentgrass maintained as a golf course fairway. doi: 10.1002/ajim.20942, PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar, Barnard, C., Daberkow, S., Padgitt, M., Smith, M. E., and Uri, N. D. (1997). In 2019, all four treatment groups had significantly higher turf quality than the control but were not statistically distinguishable from one another. One of the central goals of the SKM Reduced Risk study was to determine if the utilization of the Smith-Kerns Model (SKM) would lead to a reduction in pesticide risk. The area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) was calculated using the trapezoidal method (Campbell and Madden, 1990) and standardized based on the length of the epidemic in each year and at each location. doi: 10.1094/9780890546741, Lee, H., Bremer, D., Su, K., and Keeley, S. (2011). The incentive for golf course superintendents to adopt reduced risk strategies is nuanced and will differ based on numerous situations. Arsenic transport and transformation associated with MSMA application on a golf course green.
doi: 10.1094/PDIS-12-17-2025-RE, Rossi, F. S., and Grant, J. Campbell, C. L., and Madden, L. V. (1990). 8 ,14865. doi: 10.1038/ncomms14865, Knopper, L. D., and Lean, D. R. S. (2010). The free VitalSource Bookshelf application allows you to access to your eBooks whenever and wherever you choose. 64:167174. Table 3. More recently, the Smith-Kerns Dollar Spot Model (SKM) was developed that uses a 5-day moving average of average daily air temperature and average daily relative humidity to produce a probability that dollar spot will develop on any given day (Smith et al., 2018). The authors would like to thank University Ridge Golf Course Superintendent Phil Davidson for allowing on-site research from 2014 through 2016. The CP-SKM treatment, despite two fewer fungicide applications, had higher risk because the amount of chlorothalonil applied in this treatment compared to the CP was greater. Arsenic abundance and variation in golf course lakes. on golf course fairways and putting greens. doi: 10.2134/jeq2013.01.0017.
doi: 10.1094/9780890546154, Smith, D. L., Kerns, J. P., Walker, N. R., Payne, A. F., Horvath, B., Inguagiato, J. C., et al. It is a valuable reference for information on fungicide movement in turf, fungicide mode of action, strategies for dealing with the threat of fungicide resistance, environmental and maintenance factors that influence fungicide performance, approaches to scheduling fungicide sprays, and practices for integrating chemical and nonchemical options for individual turf diseases, among other topics.This is the first book written in practical terms for turf managers and students that describes how and why fungicides work (and sometimes do not work). Available online at: https://www.randa.org/TheRandA/AboutTheRandA/DownloadsAndPublications (accessed April 6, 2022). An additional application of chlorothalonil was added to this treatment compared to the CP because of concerns with overall efficacy of the program and development of fungicide resistant organisms. Pesticides are critical tools for golf course managers to maintain healthy and economically profitable golf course playing surfaces. The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fagro.2022.881591/full#supplementary-material, Arcury-Quandt, A. E., Gentry, A. L., and Marin, A. J. EPA Reduced Risk Program (2021). doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-06746-9_4. Vargas, J. M. Jr (2005).
Surprisingly of the four treatment groups, the 100%-SA treatment had the lowest turf quality. Sci. For the State Average Comparison study conducted at the O. J. Noer the length of the epidemic was 122 days in 2017, 116 days in 2018, 119 days in 2019, and 113 days in 2020. We define reduced risk pesticide products as those either labeled as reduced risk by the Reduced Risk Program (EPA Reduced Risk Program, 2021) or products with similar chemistries and toxicity profiles as fungicides included in the Reduced Risk Program. 291, 123134. Mammals were chosen as the endpoint for the HQ model because mammalian toxicity has important implications for human health. Sci. MB organized the database, produced the figures and tables, and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. SKM reduced risk study treatment program, date, trade name, active ingredient, rate of application, and pesticide risk as quantified by active ingredient application rate, HQ, hazard quotient; EIQ, Environmental Impact Quotient; PRT, Pesticide Risk Tool for each product applied in the study. Plant Dis. The risk points per application metric captures both high, moderate, and low risk by converting the different numerical scales across 13 categories to a common 0 Bekken et al. Altering product selection in favor of lower risk products, pesticide risk for the control of dollar spot on golf course fairways can be reduced sharply without compromising dollar spot control. The PRT also estimated large reductions in risk for RR-SKM in comparison to CP and CP-SKM. Another central goal of both studies was to determine the ability of reduced risk pesticide programs to control dollar spot. doi: 10.1016/S0048-9697(01)01081-6. Available online at: http://www.sterf.org/Media/Get/3162/fjeldsted-sterf-pesticide-seminar-7march-2019-danish-epa-experiences.pdf (accessed April 6, 2022). However, Kniss (2017) only measured the chronic and acute risk trends to mammals. Using the SKM model in the CP-SKM treatment to time fungicide applications led to two fewer fungicides applications compared to the CP, however overall risk was higher than the CP. Resistance of Sclerotinia homoeocarpa to iprodione and benomyl. Total Environ. What's New in the Second Edition?This second edition features new grasses, new diseases, and the latest research findings and practices. Chlorothalonil, as measured by HQ, is not a highly toxic pesticide because it has modest mammalian acute toxicity. Metcalfe et al. (1992) (Equation 2). doi: 10.1111/mpp.12174, Sapkota, S., Catching, K. E., Raymer, P. L., Martinez-Espinoza, A. D., and Bahri, B. Building a pesticide application program around lower risk fungicides while still incorporating lower risk resistance management chemistries, such as fluazinam, is a way to both reduce risk but decrease the likelihood of resistance development. Arnie and Jack: Palmer, Nicklaus, and Golf's Greatest Rivalry, Best Management Practices for Saline & Sodic Turfgrass Soils, Certification Preparation Guide - 2022 Updates. Turf color as quantified by chlorophyll index (CI) was significantly different between the control and the four treatment programs in 3 of the 4 years of the study. Detection of demethylation inhibitor (DMI) resistance in Sclerotinia homoeocarpa populations. All treatments reduced disease compared to the non-treated control in each of the 9 site-years (Table 4). In 2016, RR-SKM had the highest turf quality at University Ridge hole 14 and O. J. Noer and was tied for the highest turf quality at University Ridge hole 7 and 18. Taken together, these results indicate that pesticide risk can be significantly reduced on golf courses in the US Midwest without sacrificing dollar spot control. Dollar spot severity was assessed by counting dollar spot infection centers approximately every 14 days from May through October depending on how long the dollar spot epidemic persisted in each year. No differences in turf quality were observed among the three treatment programs in 2014. This statewide average was then used to test pesticide programs at 100, 75, 50, and 25% of the average risk for their efficacy in controlling dollar spot over a 4-year period. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. GCSAA is dedicated to serving its members, advancing their profession and enhancing the enjoyment, growth and vitality of the game of golf. Total Environ. https://www.thefreelibrary.com/A+Practical+Guide+to+Turfgrass+Fungicides%2c+second+edition.-a0672005871. Similar to EIQ, the PRT estimates pesticide risk to a variety of environmental endpoints and weighs them to produce a score of overall environmental pesticide risk. Professor Latin describes this combination instructional guide and manual as "an off-season resource" that can be used to reflect on past seasons and plan for the season ahead. 67, 627630. Plant Pathol.
Fungicides. Indicators of pesticide risk are not widely used in the golf course management industry despite the heavy reliance on chemical fungicides to provide acceptable conditions. Sci. (2009). Individual plot area measured 1.8 by 3.0 m and the four treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Control of dollar spot of creeping bentgrass caused by an isolate of Sclerotinia homoeocarpa resistant to benzimidazole and demethylation-inhibitor fungicides. 394, 313320. New approaches to an old problem: dollar spot of turfgrass. Models developed by Mills and Rothwell (1982); Hall (1984); Ryan et al. The fungicide program submitted by one of the 23 golf courses referenced above that had an HQ score closest to the statewide average was chosen as the baseline for use in this study and is referred to as the 100% state average (SA) risk program. There is some scientific evidence that golf course superintendents have worse health outcomes which may be linked to on-the-job pesticide exposure (Kross et al., 1996; Knopper and Lean, 2010). The turf color (NDVI and chlorophyll meter) data were also subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and means separated using Fishers least significant difference (P 0.05) in SAS.
doi: 10.1094/PD-79-0491. Agron. Dollar spot is the most common and costly disease for golf course superintendents in temperate US climates to control, but the repeated pesticide applications to control dollar spot can increase fungal resistance and risk both human and environmental health. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Pesticide risk and price of each treatment program in the State Risk Comparison Study according to the five pesticide risk indices used to quantify pesticide risk: HQ, Hazard Quotient; AI App Rate, Active Ingredient Application Rate; FUEIQ, Field Use Environmental Impact Quotient; PRT-Risk Points per App, Pesticide Risk Tool- Risk Points per Application; PRT-High Risks per App, Pesticide Risk Tool- High Risks per Application. Increased risk to aquatic invertebrates and pollinators was primarily a result of pyrethroid and neonicotinoid insecticides and came as insecticide use rates declined. Fungus Diseases of Turfgrass, III: Disease Complexes. Total Environ. The model uses a qualitative framework to weigh risk for eleven environmental endpoints and subjectively combines these risk factors into a single score, meant to be representative of overall environmental risk. Front. The study was conducted in 2014, 2015, and 2016 on approximately the same area in each year. Similar to EIQ and hazard quotient, the PRT estimates pesticide risk based on the two elements of risk: toxicity and exposure. In the PRT, chlorothalonil has a high risk score in the aquatic invertebrates and (human) dermal cancer categories, and a moderate risk score in the avian reproductive and aquatic algae categories. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.01.046, Popko, J. T., Sang, H., Lee, J., Yamada, T., Hoshino, Y., and Jung, G. (2018). Pesticide risk and price of each treatment program in the Smith Kerns Model Reduced Risk Study according to the five pesticide risk indices used to quantify pesticide risk: HQ, Hazard Quotient; AI App Rate, Active Ingredient Application Rate; FUEIQ, Field Use Environmental Impact Quotient; PRT-Risk Points per App, Pesticide Risk Tool- Risk Points per Application; PRT-High Risks per App, Pesticide Risk Tool- High Risks per Application. By continuing to use the website, you consent to our use of cookies. When comparing RR-SKM to CP, pesticide risk as quantified by the AI application rate, HQ and FUEIQ were reduced by 76, 72, and 81%, respectively. Available online at: https://pesticiderisk.org (accessed April 6, 2022). 53, 35563562. When comparing the RR-SKM to CP-SKM pesticide risk as quantified by the AI application rate, HQ and FUEIQ were reduced by 77, 78, and 83%, respectively.
The high cost of fungicides to suppress dollar spot has led to the development of multiple dollar spot forecasting models to help optimize fungicide application timing (Sapkota et al., 2022). (2005). A method to measure the environmental impact of pesticides. Fungal, bacterial, and viral diseases; black layer disease; and diseases caused by nematodes are addressed for all major grasses. doi: 10.1094/P.D.-67-627. 232, ed D. Whitacre (Heidelberg; Dordrecht; London; New York, NY: Springer), 89105. 218, 815. Renew. Product pricing will be adjusted to match the corresponding currency. Multiple studies have detected high levels of arsenic in soils and groundwater of golf courses from the use of arsenic containing pesticides (Cai et al., 2002; Feng et al., 2005; Pichler et al., 2008). Environ. Pesticide Science and Assessing Pesticide Risks. All of the 23 golf courses that submitted pesticide records to calculate an average pesticide risk for Wisconsin used chlorothalonil in their pesticide application programs. is the most common golf course turfgrass disease in temperate climates around the world, and on cool-season turfgrass in North America dollar spot is caused by C. jacksonii (Smiley et al., 2005; Salgado-Salazar et al., 2018; Sapkota et al., 2022). The program calculates pesticide risk using a pesticide risk indicator similar to EIQ. Professor Latin developed "A Practical Guide to Turfgrass Fungicides" to be a thoroughly 'user-friendly' guide based on his belief that if turf managers understand how and why fungicides work (and sometimes fail), they will use these products more effectively and efficiently and communicate disease control issues with greater confidence. Pesticide risk as quantified by the PRT Risk Points per application was reduced by 51% between the RR-SKM and the CP program, and 56% between the RR-SKM and the CP-SKM program. Rat (Rattus spp) acute oral median lethal dose to control 50% of the control group (LD50) was used to approximate the acute mammalian toxicity and was chosen as the reference dose for the hazard quotient formula. A novel framework for estimating and analyzing pesticide risk on golf courses. While such high levels of risk reduction may not be possible on all golf courses given the constraints of maintenance budgets and the development of fungal resistance, significant reductions in golf course pesticide risk to control dollar spot are achievable simply by making changes in product selection. Pollut. (2005). Golf courses in Wisconsin spend on average $42,000 on pesticides annually (Bekken et al., 2021). In 2016 the length of the epidemic was 133 days at University Ridge and 154 days at O. J. Noer. Each of the four fungicide programs suppressed dollar spot relative to the non-treated control in each year of the study (Table 5). In the State Risk Comparison Study, the 25%-SA treatment reduced risk by 75% compared to the Wisconsin statewide average but only reduced costs by 10%. In addition, the study benchmarks average pesticide risk for 23 golf courses in Wisconsin, USA, and tests application programs of lower risk for their efficacy in controlling dollar spot. Across all years and locations of the study, turf color, as quantified by NDVI (2014 and 2015) and CI (2016), was significantly higher for the treatment programs (CP, CP-SKM, RR-SKM) compared to the control (Table 4). This Second Edition of Management of Turfgrass Diseases has been completely revised and updated to provide the latest information on maintaining a healthy turf and identifying turf diseases. A Practical Guide to Turfgrass Fungicides is a current and comprehensive resource that addresses fungicides used specifically for turf disease control. Kniss (2017) found that herbicide use in US agriculture increased from 1990 to 2015 but that acute and chronic mammalian risk was mostly either declining or stable. (2011) found that most US golf course superintendents interviewed did not think that pesticides present a personal health risk. Valuable tips on irrigation, fertilization, and grass culture as well as 72 full-color photographs and more than 100 figures ensure this book will be dog-eared from use. Despite golf courses only covering less than a half percent the land area as US agriculture, US golf courses account for 10% of total chlorothalonil use (Van Scoy and Tjeerdema, 2014). The products used in each treatment, the associated pesticide risk scores, and the dates of application can be found in Table 2. The random selection occurred by assigning a number to every golf course in the Wisconsin Golf Course Superintendents Association directory and using a random number generator to select 50 numbers. Area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC), turfgrass color, and turfgrass quality (TQ) for the Smith-Kerns model reduced risk study conducted at University Ridge Golf Course and the O. J. Noer Turfgrass Research Facility in Verona, Wisconsin, USA between 2014 and 2016. The first fungicide program was titled the Conventional Program (CP) and was based on the fungicide program of a public golf course in southern Wisconsin, USA where pesticides were applied on a preventative calendar schedule. Chlorothalonil inhibits mouse ovarian development through endocrine disruption. Bekken et al.
(2018). Dollar spot AUDPC values were significantly different across sites (P < 0.001) and years (P < 0.001) (Supplementary Tables S1S4). Total Environ. Assessment of arsenic mobility in the soils of some golf courses in South Florida. Once a pesticide was applied, the recommended reapplication interval from that pesticide label was observed, and thereafter the next application of fungicide(s) was applied when the model again exceeded 20%. Nat. Our research indicates that reducing or removing chlorothalonil from a pest management program is the single most effective way to reduce pesticide risk on golf courses. Bekken et al.
Latin, R (2021). A Practical Guide to Turfgrass Fungicides 2nd Edition, Arnie and Jack: Palmer, Nicklaus and Golf's Greatest Rivalry, Best Management Practices for Saline and Sodic Turfgrass Soils, Building Type Basics for Recreational Facilities. *Correspondence: Paul L. Koch, plkoch@wisc.edu, https://doi.org/10.3389/fagro.2022.881591, https://nysipm.cornell.edu/eiq/calculator-field-use-eiq/, Scandinavian Turfgrass Environmental Research Foundation (STERF), 2019, https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fagro.2022.881591/full#supplementary-material, https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/conventional-reduced-risk-pesticide-program, http://www.golfcourseindustry.com/article/gci0115-golf-state-industry-report-2015/, https://www.ngf.org/golf-industry-research/, https://www.randa.org/TheRandA/AboutTheRandA/DownloadsAndPublications, http://www.sterf.org/Media/Get/3162/fjeldsted-sterf-pesticide-seminar-7march-2019-danish-epa-experiences.pdf, https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-science-and-assessing-pesticide-risks, https://www.bls.gov/spotlight/2017/sports-and-exercise/pdf/sports-and-exercise.pdf, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY).
Compendium of Turfgrass Diseases - 3rd Ed. While the RR-SKM program had significantly lower pesticide risk than the other two pesticide application programs in the study, the estimated cost of the program was $5,049 USD per hectare. (2021) found that despite large reductions in pesticide risk to fish, mammals, and birds, pesticide risk to aquatic invertebrates and pollinators has increased significantly over the past 25 years in US agriculture. Mole. The third fungicide program, titled Reduced Risk Smith-Kerns Model (RR-SKM), also based application timing on the SKM but only used fungicides labeled as reduced risk by the Reduced Risk Program (EPA Reduced Risk Program, 2021) or products with similar chemistries and toxicity profiles as fungicides included in the Reduced Risk Program. However, the four treatment programs were statistically indistinguishable in color across all 4 years of the study (Table 5). The second experiment ran for four growing seasons (2017 through 2020) and is referred to as the State Risk Comparison Study.. Received: 22 February 2022; Accepted: 20 April 2022; Published: 13 May 2022. Murphy, R. R., and Haith, D. A. In Denmark, all golf courses are required to use an online pesticide application software [Scandinavian Turfgrass Environmental Research Foundation (STERF), 2019]. Superintendents in the US often feel pressure from golfers to maintain high quality pest-free playing surfaces, and therefore are incentivized to use more pesticide rather than less. Turfgrass quality ratings included combinations of disease, color, density, and uniformity and were always conducted by the same person to avoid interpersonal variation. J. Indust. These results highlight the importance both of calculating pesticide risk instead of weight of pesticide applied as a measure of ecological impact and estimating pesticide risk to a wide variety of non-target organisms. The first study found that using the Smith-Kerns Dollar Spot Prediction Model to schedule fungicide applications did not reduce pesticide risk on its own, but that a pesticide program utilizing reduced risk products was just as effective in controlling dollar spot as a conventional program while reducing pesticide risk by ~5080% depending on the pesticide risk indicator used.
Turfgrass quality was also rated visually every 14 days using the National Turfgrass Evaluation Program (NTEP) 1 to 9 rating scale, where 1 is dead/necrotic, 6 is minimally acceptable, and 9 is excellent (Lee et al., 2011). However, EPA risk assessments only consider individual pesticide products and therefore do not quantify the risk of pest management programs that commonly contain many different pesticides. (2021) Wallis test via the kruskal function of the agricolae package in R (v.3.6.2), and the kruskal function also separated out treatment differences in turfgrass quality using a Fishers least significant difference test (P 0.05).
J. Environ. doi: 10.1021/es060964b. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. J. Copyright 2022 Apple Inc. All rights reserved. Carcinogenic and genotoxic potential of turf pesticides commonly used on golf courses. Experience With an Upper Limit for Total Pesticide Use on Danish Golf Courses. Base EIQ values were obtained from the EIQ Calculator website (https://nysipm.cornell.edu/eiq/calculator-field-use-eiq/). doi: 10.1897/07-216.1. AUDPC data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and means separated using Fishers least significant difference (P 0.05) using the MIXED procedure in SAS (Version 9.4, Cary, North Carolina). The high risks per application indicator is a summation of the number of high risks across the 13 categories included in the PRT for each application made. 9, 643847. doi: 10.3389/fenvs.2021.643847, Haith, D. A., and Rossi, F. S. (2003). doi: 10.1094/PDIS.1997.81.11.1259, Cai, Y., Cabrera, J. C., Georgiadis, M., and Jayachandran, K. (2002). doi: 10.1021/jf047908j, Golembiewski, R., Vargas, J., Jones, A. L., and Detweiler, A. R. (1995). Prices & shipping based on shipping country.
(2021) reviewed 400 studies of soil invertebrates and 2,800 tested parameters (the effect of a specific pesticide on a specific soil invertebrate) and found that 70.5% of tested parameters showed negative effects, 1.4% showed positive effects, and 28.1% showed no effect. N. Y. (2011). Plant Dis. For the average US golf course with 11.4 ha of fairways, the annual cost of the RR-SKM program would be ~$58,000 USD, compared to $36,200 for the CP. 139, 18. Hortscience 47, 422426. Bennett). Table 4. 134, 173182. Toxicol. (2021). Scandinavian Turfgrass Environmental Research Foundation (STERF) (2019). This was more than two times greater than the cost of the CP-SKM program ($2,446 USD per hectare) and 1.6 times the cost of CP program ($3,172 USD per hectare). doi: 10.2135/cropsci2010.05.0296, Metcalfe, T. L., Dillion, P. J., and Metcalfe, C. D. (2008). J. Indus. Chem. The study was conducted in 2017, 2018, 2019, and 2020 on approximately the same location each year. (2022). The editor and reviewer's affiliations are the latest provided on their Loop research profiles and may not reflect their situation at the time of review. Supplementary Table S7 indicates dollar spot severity at each rating date across the 4 years of the study. (2021) 10 scale. Bull.
doi: 10.1016/j.funbio.2018.04.004, Sang, H., Hulvey, J., Popko, J. T., Lopes, J., Swaminathan, A., Chang, T., et al. IPM Institute of North America (2021). In 2014 and 2015, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) measurements were collected on a 14-day interval to estimate turfgrass color and was measured using a FieldScout TCM 500 NDVI Turf Color Meter (Spectrum Technologies Inc., Plainfield, Illinois). Future advancements in disease resistant grasses, precision application technology, and plant-based fungicides may bring further reductions in pesticide risk and increase the sustainability of US golf courses. Cultural Aspects of Turfgrass Disease Management. Next, the Field Use Environmental Impact Quotient (FUEIQ) was calculated consistent with the methods of Kovach et al.
Qual. (2018). Fungus Diseases of Turfgrass, II: Diseases Primarily of Home Lawn and General Turfs. Using Disease Resistance in Turfgrass Management. In the remaining 3 years of the study, however, the four treatment groups were statistically distinguishable. Indeed, more money is spent on fungicides to suppress dollar spot than any other turfgrass pest, and a single golf course can easily exceed $10,000 USD annually targeting dollar spot (Vargas, 2005; Golf Course Industry, 2015). Informa UK Limited, an Informa Plc company. The repeated use of fungicides to control dollar spot has led to widespread documentation of C. jacksonii populations that are resistant to a variety of fungicide classes including the demethylation inhibitor (DMI), dicarboximide, succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor (SDHI), and benzimidazole fungicide classes (Detweiler et al., 1983; Golembiewski et al., 1995; Burpee, 1997; Sang et al., 2015; Sapkota et al., 2022). Thus, a reduced risk program was just as effective or more effective in controlling dollar spot and yielding a high-quality turf surface than conventional programs. Turfgrass quality results were analyzed using the Kruskal Bekken et al. System requirements for Bookshelf for PC, Mac, IOS and Android etc. Available online at: http://www.golfcourseindustry.com/article/gci0115-golf-state-industry-report-2015/ (accessed April 6, 2022). Golf Course Industry (2015). Schulz, R., Bub, S., Petschick, L. L., Stehle, S., and Wolfram, J. Without pesticide applications, golf course greens are often not able to survive in US climates (Rossi and Grant, 2009). Lett. Food Life Sci. To calculate the statewide average, 50 golf courses in Wisconsin, USA were selected at random out of the nearly 500 golf courses in the state. Pesticide applications were made using the same method as described for the SKM Reduced Risk study. According to all five pesticide risk indicators utilized in this study, the CP-SKM had the highest pesticide risk, the CP had similar but slightly lower risk, and the RR-SKM had far lower risk than the other two programs (Figure 1). KH and PK contributed to conceptualization, design of the study, field work, and editing paper drafts. Plant Sci. One method to estimate pesticide risk of pesticide application programs is to sum the annual weight of pesticide active ingredient applied (Kerns and Tredway, 2013). Volatilization of pesticides from golf courses in the United States: mass fluxes and inhalation health risks. Long-term trends in the intensity and relative toxicity of herbicide use. Wong, H., and Haith, D. A. The Warm-Season Grasses: A Plant Pathologist's Point of View. (2014). The State Risk Comparison field experiment was conducted at the O. J. Noer Turfgrass Research Facility on Focus' creeping bentgrass maintained as a golf course fairway. doi: 10.1002/ajim.20942, PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar, Barnard, C., Daberkow, S., Padgitt, M., Smith, M. E., and Uri, N. D. (1997). In 2019, all four treatment groups had significantly higher turf quality than the control but were not statistically distinguishable from one another. One of the central goals of the SKM Reduced Risk study was to determine if the utilization of the Smith-Kerns Model (SKM) would lead to a reduction in pesticide risk. The area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) was calculated using the trapezoidal method (Campbell and Madden, 1990) and standardized based on the length of the epidemic in each year and at each location. doi: 10.1094/9780890546741, Lee, H., Bremer, D., Su, K., and Keeley, S. (2011). The incentive for golf course superintendents to adopt reduced risk strategies is nuanced and will differ based on numerous situations. Arsenic transport and transformation associated with MSMA application on a golf course green.
doi: 10.1094/PDIS-12-17-2025-RE, Rossi, F. S., and Grant, J. Campbell, C. L., and Madden, L. V. (1990). 8 ,14865. doi: 10.1038/ncomms14865, Knopper, L. D., and Lean, D. R. S. (2010). The free VitalSource Bookshelf application allows you to access to your eBooks whenever and wherever you choose. 64:167174. Table 3. More recently, the Smith-Kerns Dollar Spot Model (SKM) was developed that uses a 5-day moving average of average daily air temperature and average daily relative humidity to produce a probability that dollar spot will develop on any given day (Smith et al., 2018). The authors would like to thank University Ridge Golf Course Superintendent Phil Davidson for allowing on-site research from 2014 through 2016. The CP-SKM treatment, despite two fewer fungicide applications, had higher risk because the amount of chlorothalonil applied in this treatment compared to the CP was greater. Arsenic abundance and variation in golf course lakes. on golf course fairways and putting greens. doi: 10.2134/jeq2013.01.0017.
doi: 10.1094/9780890546154, Smith, D. L., Kerns, J. P., Walker, N. R., Payne, A. F., Horvath, B., Inguagiato, J. C., et al. It is a valuable reference for information on fungicide movement in turf, fungicide mode of action, strategies for dealing with the threat of fungicide resistance, environmental and maintenance factors that influence fungicide performance, approaches to scheduling fungicide sprays, and practices for integrating chemical and nonchemical options for individual turf diseases, among other topics.This is the first book written in practical terms for turf managers and students that describes how and why fungicides work (and sometimes do not work). Available online at: https://www.randa.org/TheRandA/AboutTheRandA/DownloadsAndPublications (accessed April 6, 2022). An additional application of chlorothalonil was added to this treatment compared to the CP because of concerns with overall efficacy of the program and development of fungicide resistant organisms. Pesticides are critical tools for golf course managers to maintain healthy and economically profitable golf course playing surfaces. The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fagro.2022.881591/full#supplementary-material, Arcury-Quandt, A. E., Gentry, A. L., and Marin, A. J. EPA Reduced Risk Program (2021). doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-06746-9_4. Vargas, J. M. Jr (2005).
Surprisingly of the four treatment groups, the 100%-SA treatment had the lowest turf quality. Sci. For the State Average Comparison study conducted at the O. J. Noer the length of the epidemic was 122 days in 2017, 116 days in 2018, 119 days in 2019, and 113 days in 2020. We define reduced risk pesticide products as those either labeled as reduced risk by the Reduced Risk Program (EPA Reduced Risk Program, 2021) or products with similar chemistries and toxicity profiles as fungicides included in the Reduced Risk Program. 291, 123134. Mammals were chosen as the endpoint for the HQ model because mammalian toxicity has important implications for human health. Sci. MB organized the database, produced the figures and tables, and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. SKM reduced risk study treatment program, date, trade name, active ingredient, rate of application, and pesticide risk as quantified by active ingredient application rate, HQ, hazard quotient; EIQ, Environmental Impact Quotient; PRT, Pesticide Risk Tool for each product applied in the study. Plant Dis. The risk points per application metric captures both high, moderate, and low risk by converting the different numerical scales across 13 categories to a common 0 Bekken et al. Altering product selection in favor of lower risk products, pesticide risk for the control of dollar spot on golf course fairways can be reduced sharply without compromising dollar spot control. The PRT also estimated large reductions in risk for RR-SKM in comparison to CP and CP-SKM. Another central goal of both studies was to determine the ability of reduced risk pesticide programs to control dollar spot. doi: 10.1016/S0048-9697(01)01081-6. Available online at: http://www.sterf.org/Media/Get/3162/fjeldsted-sterf-pesticide-seminar-7march-2019-danish-epa-experiences.pdf (accessed April 6, 2022). However, Kniss (2017) only measured the chronic and acute risk trends to mammals. Using the SKM model in the CP-SKM treatment to time fungicide applications led to two fewer fungicides applications compared to the CP, however overall risk was higher than the CP. Resistance of Sclerotinia homoeocarpa to iprodione and benomyl. Total Environ. What's New in the Second Edition?This second edition features new grasses, new diseases, and the latest research findings and practices. Chlorothalonil, as measured by HQ, is not a highly toxic pesticide because it has modest mammalian acute toxicity. Metcalfe et al. (1992) (Equation 2). doi: 10.1111/mpp.12174, Sapkota, S., Catching, K. E., Raymer, P. L., Martinez-Espinoza, A. D., and Bahri, B. Building a pesticide application program around lower risk fungicides while still incorporating lower risk resistance management chemistries, such as fluazinam, is a way to both reduce risk but decrease the likelihood of resistance development. Arnie and Jack: Palmer, Nicklaus, and Golf's Greatest Rivalry, Best Management Practices for Saline & Sodic Turfgrass Soils, Certification Preparation Guide - 2022 Updates. Turf color as quantified by chlorophyll index (CI) was significantly different between the control and the four treatment programs in 3 of the 4 years of the study. Detection of demethylation inhibitor (DMI) resistance in Sclerotinia homoeocarpa populations. All treatments reduced disease compared to the non-treated control in each of the 9 site-years (Table 4). In 2016, RR-SKM had the highest turf quality at University Ridge hole 14 and O. J. Noer and was tied for the highest turf quality at University Ridge hole 7 and 18. Taken together, these results indicate that pesticide risk can be significantly reduced on golf courses in the US Midwest without sacrificing dollar spot control. Dollar spot severity was assessed by counting dollar spot infection centers approximately every 14 days from May through October depending on how long the dollar spot epidemic persisted in each year. No differences in turf quality were observed among the three treatment programs in 2014. This statewide average was then used to test pesticide programs at 100, 75, 50, and 25% of the average risk for their efficacy in controlling dollar spot over a 4-year period. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. GCSAA is dedicated to serving its members, advancing their profession and enhancing the enjoyment, growth and vitality of the game of golf. Total Environ. https://www.thefreelibrary.com/A+Practical+Guide+to+Turfgrass+Fungicides%2c+second+edition.-a0672005871. Similar to EIQ, the PRT estimates pesticide risk to a variety of environmental endpoints and weighs them to produce a score of overall environmental pesticide risk. Professor Latin describes this combination instructional guide and manual as "an off-season resource" that can be used to reflect on past seasons and plan for the season ahead. 67, 627630. Plant Pathol.
Fungicides. Indicators of pesticide risk are not widely used in the golf course management industry despite the heavy reliance on chemical fungicides to provide acceptable conditions. Sci. (2009). Individual plot area measured 1.8 by 3.0 m and the four treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Control of dollar spot of creeping bentgrass caused by an isolate of Sclerotinia homoeocarpa resistant to benzimidazole and demethylation-inhibitor fungicides. 394, 313320. New approaches to an old problem: dollar spot of turfgrass. Models developed by Mills and Rothwell (1982); Hall (1984); Ryan et al. The fungicide program submitted by one of the 23 golf courses referenced above that had an HQ score closest to the statewide average was chosen as the baseline for use in this study and is referred to as the 100% state average (SA) risk program. There is some scientific evidence that golf course superintendents have worse health outcomes which may be linked to on-the-job pesticide exposure (Kross et al., 1996; Knopper and Lean, 2010). The turf color (NDVI and chlorophyll meter) data were also subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and means separated using Fishers least significant difference (P 0.05) in SAS.
doi: 10.1094/PD-79-0491. Agron. Dollar spot is the most common and costly disease for golf course superintendents in temperate US climates to control, but the repeated pesticide applications to control dollar spot can increase fungal resistance and risk both human and environmental health. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Pesticide risk and price of each treatment program in the State Risk Comparison Study according to the five pesticide risk indices used to quantify pesticide risk: HQ, Hazard Quotient; AI App Rate, Active Ingredient Application Rate; FUEIQ, Field Use Environmental Impact Quotient; PRT-Risk Points per App, Pesticide Risk Tool- Risk Points per Application; PRT-High Risks per App, Pesticide Risk Tool- High Risks per Application. Increased risk to aquatic invertebrates and pollinators was primarily a result of pyrethroid and neonicotinoid insecticides and came as insecticide use rates declined. Fungus Diseases of Turfgrass, III: Disease Complexes. Total Environ. The model uses a qualitative framework to weigh risk for eleven environmental endpoints and subjectively combines these risk factors into a single score, meant to be representative of overall environmental risk. Front. The study was conducted in 2014, 2015, and 2016 on approximately the same area in each year. Similar to EIQ and hazard quotient, the PRT estimates pesticide risk based on the two elements of risk: toxicity and exposure. In the PRT, chlorothalonil has a high risk score in the aquatic invertebrates and (human) dermal cancer categories, and a moderate risk score in the avian reproductive and aquatic algae categories. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.01.046, Popko, J. T., Sang, H., Lee, J., Yamada, T., Hoshino, Y., and Jung, G. (2018). Pesticide risk and price of each treatment program in the Smith Kerns Model Reduced Risk Study according to the five pesticide risk indices used to quantify pesticide risk: HQ, Hazard Quotient; AI App Rate, Active Ingredient Application Rate; FUEIQ, Field Use Environmental Impact Quotient; PRT-Risk Points per App, Pesticide Risk Tool- Risk Points per Application; PRT-High Risks per App, Pesticide Risk Tool- High Risks per Application. By continuing to use the website, you consent to our use of cookies. When comparing RR-SKM to CP, pesticide risk as quantified by the AI application rate, HQ and FUEIQ were reduced by 76, 72, and 81%, respectively. Available online at: https://pesticiderisk.org (accessed April 6, 2022). 53, 35563562. When comparing the RR-SKM to CP-SKM pesticide risk as quantified by the AI application rate, HQ and FUEIQ were reduced by 77, 78, and 83%, respectively.
The high cost of fungicides to suppress dollar spot has led to the development of multiple dollar spot forecasting models to help optimize fungicide application timing (Sapkota et al., 2022). (2005). A method to measure the environmental impact of pesticides. Fungal, bacterial, and viral diseases; black layer disease; and diseases caused by nematodes are addressed for all major grasses. doi: 10.1094/P.D.-67-627. 232, ed D. Whitacre (Heidelberg; Dordrecht; London; New York, NY: Springer), 89105. 218, 815. Renew. Product pricing will be adjusted to match the corresponding currency. Multiple studies have detected high levels of arsenic in soils and groundwater of golf courses from the use of arsenic containing pesticides (Cai et al., 2002; Feng et al., 2005; Pichler et al., 2008). Environ. Pesticide Science and Assessing Pesticide Risks. All of the 23 golf courses that submitted pesticide records to calculate an average pesticide risk for Wisconsin used chlorothalonil in their pesticide application programs. is the most common golf course turfgrass disease in temperate climates around the world, and on cool-season turfgrass in North America dollar spot is caused by C. jacksonii (Smiley et al., 2005; Salgado-Salazar et al., 2018; Sapkota et al., 2022). The program calculates pesticide risk using a pesticide risk indicator similar to EIQ. Professor Latin developed "A Practical Guide to Turfgrass Fungicides" to be a thoroughly 'user-friendly' guide based on his belief that if turf managers understand how and why fungicides work (and sometimes fail), they will use these products more effectively and efficiently and communicate disease control issues with greater confidence. Pesticide risk as quantified by the PRT Risk Points per application was reduced by 51% between the RR-SKM and the CP program, and 56% between the RR-SKM and the CP-SKM program. Rat (Rattus spp) acute oral median lethal dose to control 50% of the control group (LD50) was used to approximate the acute mammalian toxicity and was chosen as the reference dose for the hazard quotient formula. A novel framework for estimating and analyzing pesticide risk on golf courses. While such high levels of risk reduction may not be possible on all golf courses given the constraints of maintenance budgets and the development of fungal resistance, significant reductions in golf course pesticide risk to control dollar spot are achievable simply by making changes in product selection. Pollut. (2005). Golf courses in Wisconsin spend on average $42,000 on pesticides annually (Bekken et al., 2021). In 2016 the length of the epidemic was 133 days at University Ridge and 154 days at O. J. Noer. Each of the four fungicide programs suppressed dollar spot relative to the non-treated control in each year of the study (Table 5). In the State Risk Comparison Study, the 25%-SA treatment reduced risk by 75% compared to the Wisconsin statewide average but only reduced costs by 10%. In addition, the study benchmarks average pesticide risk for 23 golf courses in Wisconsin, USA, and tests application programs of lower risk for their efficacy in controlling dollar spot. Across all years and locations of the study, turf color, as quantified by NDVI (2014 and 2015) and CI (2016), was significantly higher for the treatment programs (CP, CP-SKM, RR-SKM) compared to the control (Table 4). This Second Edition of Management of Turfgrass Diseases has been completely revised and updated to provide the latest information on maintaining a healthy turf and identifying turf diseases. A Practical Guide to Turfgrass Fungicides is a current and comprehensive resource that addresses fungicides used specifically for turf disease control. Kniss (2017) found that herbicide use in US agriculture increased from 1990 to 2015 but that acute and chronic mammalian risk was mostly either declining or stable. (2011) found that most US golf course superintendents interviewed did not think that pesticides present a personal health risk. Valuable tips on irrigation, fertilization, and grass culture as well as 72 full-color photographs and more than 100 figures ensure this book will be dog-eared from use. Despite golf courses only covering less than a half percent the land area as US agriculture, US golf courses account for 10% of total chlorothalonil use (Van Scoy and Tjeerdema, 2014). The products used in each treatment, the associated pesticide risk scores, and the dates of application can be found in Table 2. The random selection occurred by assigning a number to every golf course in the Wisconsin Golf Course Superintendents Association directory and using a random number generator to select 50 numbers. Area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC), turfgrass color, and turfgrass quality (TQ) for the Smith-Kerns model reduced risk study conducted at University Ridge Golf Course and the O. J. Noer Turfgrass Research Facility in Verona, Wisconsin, USA between 2014 and 2016. The first fungicide program was titled the Conventional Program (CP) and was based on the fungicide program of a public golf course in southern Wisconsin, USA where pesticides were applied on a preventative calendar schedule. Chlorothalonil inhibits mouse ovarian development through endocrine disruption. Bekken et al.
(2018). Dollar spot AUDPC values were significantly different across sites (P < 0.001) and years (P < 0.001) (Supplementary Tables S1S4). Total Environ. Assessment of arsenic mobility in the soils of some golf courses in South Florida. Once a pesticide was applied, the recommended reapplication interval from that pesticide label was observed, and thereafter the next application of fungicide(s) was applied when the model again exceeded 20%. Nat. Our research indicates that reducing or removing chlorothalonil from a pest management program is the single most effective way to reduce pesticide risk on golf courses. Bekken et al.
Latin, R (2021). A Practical Guide to Turfgrass Fungicides 2nd Edition, Arnie and Jack: Palmer, Nicklaus and Golf's Greatest Rivalry, Best Management Practices for Saline and Sodic Turfgrass Soils, Building Type Basics for Recreational Facilities. *Correspondence: Paul L. Koch, plkoch@wisc.edu, https://doi.org/10.3389/fagro.2022.881591, https://nysipm.cornell.edu/eiq/calculator-field-use-eiq/, Scandinavian Turfgrass Environmental Research Foundation (STERF), 2019, https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fagro.2022.881591/full#supplementary-material, https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/conventional-reduced-risk-pesticide-program, http://www.golfcourseindustry.com/article/gci0115-golf-state-industry-report-2015/, https://www.ngf.org/golf-industry-research/, https://www.randa.org/TheRandA/AboutTheRandA/DownloadsAndPublications, http://www.sterf.org/Media/Get/3162/fjeldsted-sterf-pesticide-seminar-7march-2019-danish-epa-experiences.pdf, https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-science-and-assessing-pesticide-risks, https://www.bls.gov/spotlight/2017/sports-and-exercise/pdf/sports-and-exercise.pdf, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY).